Andrew Landers Project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Andrew Landers Project - Essay Example This research will begin with the statement that music is the air we breathe and the water in our rivers. Listening to music that is different then what we would normally listen to is important to expand our knowledge and to learn appreciation. The researcher states that Andrew Landers is a musician who writes his own music and practices a mixture of folk and blues with a percussive approach that leads one into the music and works hard to keep them from leaving. On his website, he writes that he loves hot wings and his â€Å"hot† wife. He goes on to describe his family of 5 boys and one Cinderella and then partially describes his playing style and what he uses to play. In this case, he works specifically with acoustic guitars and depending on the venue or his mood he will use one of three that he has. (Landers) Influences for his music range from Johnny Cash to Jack Johnson and his music does have a very Jack Johnson vibe to it. This essay discusses that this group the Andrew Landers Project also includes a talented pianist Matt Podschweit. A little more background would be nice, however, given what he sings about and how he approaches the audience says as much or more than a bio ever could. The concert had more than just these two involved though this is their normal retinue. Unfortunately, I do not recall the other names involved at the concert as the musical experience made it easy to forget the introductions. Music Type Folksy blues music is not always easily understood. Folk music can be defined as music from the mouth, singing music. And is a popular approach to music around the world. With some musical accompaniment the individuals sing stories and tales. Blues is a music form that originated with the African Americans in the United States, it is a form of music used to convey the hardships and passion experienced by them and is commonly seen as an evolution of the West African musical approach. (The blues 1) The mixture of folk and blues brings an earthy sense to the drifting, haunting musical qualities that make blues popular. The Andrew Landers project does a very good job of bringing the music together with the message and ensures a pleasurable experience and with a true blues approach. With every new song it becomes apparent that his musical styling’s are very much influenced by the popular Jack Johnson who is also a master at using music to tell a story we can all relate to. Location and time of concert The concert itself was February the 4th 2011 at the Redstone Room in Davenport Iowa. This venue is located on the second floor of the not-for-profit River Music Experience building and allows seating of 250 persons. (Redstone Room 1) The Redstone Room allows a very intimate approach to music and is a perfect venue for a folk/blues musician such as the Andrew Landers experience. The concert itself was a great mix of intimacy and tonal qualities that made it difficult to leave when it was over. In looking back it seems that if he was in a larger venue it may be easy to lose the genuine feeling his music and approach allows in this much smaller yet still classy environment. If you are a music lover and have a chance to stop in Davenport Iowa make sure you check out one of the acts at the Redstone Room, it is an experience that cannot be duplicated regardless of your experience. With a great coffee shop in the ground floor and some refreshments available it made it an all-around beautiful experience. Personal observations and opinions The song â€Å"A son of a preacher man which I resemble† was played and it immediately garnered my attention. As he sings through the tonal lyrics the accompanying guitar work makes it difficult to turn away. The lyrics themselves were light enough to easily enjoy and still put a deep message across,

People are Born Homosexual Essay Example for Free

People are Born Homosexual Essay Homosexuality is not just a contemporary ideology or behaviour of people. It has been present even during the ancient Grecian times, and the early African and Native American tribes. In some Native American tribes, a man dressed as a woman was treated with great respect because they were considered to be spiritually gifted (Bidstrup, 2001). In some African tribes, masturbation and other homosexual behaviours between young boys were even tolerated (Bidstrup, 2001). They saw these actions as innocent and nothing but child-play. In the ancient Greek and Roman civilization, same sex relationships were accepted. It was not unusual to see men kissing other men in public. This tolerance was somehow changed upon the intrusion of the English. They introduced the idea that same sex relationships and behaviours were immoral. Thus, some of these people repressed these behaviours until it became taboo even today. Homosexuality is different from sexual orientation. It is a specific type of the sexual orientation of an individual. Sexual orientation is the degree to which an individual is attracted to persons of the other sex and/or to the persons of the same sex (Smith, et al, 2003). Homosexuality, on the other hand, is the attraction of an individual to the same sex and heterosexuality is the attraction to the opposite sex. The origin of homosexuality has been debated for a long time now. There were psychologists and scientists who support the idea that sexual orientation is innate. On the other hand, some say that environmental factors play a great deal of importance in determining an individual’s sexual orientation and not innate ones. But which one is true? Let me first discuss the history of homosexuality in order to have a better understanding on it. Why is it sacred and ordinary in the past? Do these histories prove the existence of innate and environmental factors in influencing an individual’s sexual orientation? Homosexuality in Prehistoric Africa According to some early text during the Inquisition period, African tribes accepted homosexuality in their culture. Even one of these tribes, the Hausa people, had terms to describe homosexuals: ‘Yan dauda which describes a transvestite and ‘dan dauda which can be translated as homosexual ‘wife’ (Bidstrup, 2001). In this tribe, they engaged in male prostitution. These male prostitutes did not have ‘pimps’ but they engaged in prostitution if an opportunity arises. There were other tribes in Africa where boys engaging in homosexual activities were considered to be innocent. They considered themselves virgins at marriage despite having experience in homosexual activities. There were also tribes where they expect men to engage in sexual activities with other men like the Bantu-speaking people of Africa. Homosexuality among Native Americans There were a significant number of men wearing women clothes in Native American tribes. These men were called Two-Spirits because they embody the two sexes the male and the female. They were respected because Native Americans believed that these men were special gifts by the God. They believed that these men have insights regarding spiritual matters. They were considered to be prophets who were able to understand the realm of both man and woman (Bidstrup, 2001). Homosexuality in Ancient Greece and Rome It was known that the Roman Empire did not tolerate homosexuality in the society. But this belief is wrong. Like the ancient Greeks, Romans also accepted men having relationships with men. It was believed that the Roman Empire declined when the tolerance on homosexuality increased. On the contrary, when it was ruled by the Senate, it was discovered that Romans had a high tolerance on homosexuality (Bidstrup, 2001). In Ancient Greece, they believed that masculinity and feminity was not two separate essences. They believed that the sex of an individual was actually the combination of both masculinity and feminity. Therefore, homosexuality was not an issue for Greeks. They do not find men kissing other men in public an unusual scene. They accept men getting married with another man and having sexual intercourse with them. Thus, we can find a large number of literature and art regarding homosexuality in these civilizations. This brief history on the presence of homosexuality among individuals proves that homosexuality is not just a mere trend brought by contemporary ideals. It has been part of our society since the dawn of man. Also, these histories show that homosexuality may be in-born and may also be influenced due to environmental factors. Despite the primitive nature of prehistoric Africans, some men were able to find themselves attracted to other men. It is possible that innate factors played in this instinctive behaviour of being attracted to the same sex. Another illustration is apparent influence of environmental factors. The Greeks’ wide acceptance of man-to-man relationships and their beliefs on gender and sexuality influenced men’s sexual orientation. Innate Factors in Sexual Orientation Psychologists say that childhood gender nonconformity is a phenomenon that shows the innateness of sexual orientation. Childhood gender nonconformity is when an individual enjoys activities typical of the other sex and most of their friends are the other sex. It was also found that adults who experienced gender nonconformity report that they had not been masculine (for men) or feminine (for women) when they were children (Smith, et al, 2003). Another evidence is the presence of a gene present in homosexuals. It was observed that gay brothers often tend to share the same X-chromosome Xq28 (Deem, 2009). This finding suggests that this gene may affect male’s sexual orientation. Environmental Factors on Sexual Orientation One evidence of environmental factors acting as determinants of sexual orientation is the nurture aspect in child development. It is said that parents play a role in the gender identity and sexual orientation development of a child. But this theory is not strongly supported by scientific studies. Another evidence is the exotic-becomes-erotic theory of Daryll Bem of Cornell University. In this theory, he believes that sexual orientation is socially determined. Thus, environment plays a role in sexual orientation development. But we should also take into account that EBE theory addresses the innateness of sexual orientation. EBE theory suggests that genes and hormones cause differences in a child’s temperament. The difference would determine if the child will be engrossed in activities typical to his/her own sex or to the other sex. When the child spends more time with the opposite sex, they feel similar with the opposite sex and become alienated with the same sex. This exotic feeling then becomes an erotic feeling when the child grows. Although the evidence for environmental factors is weak, Bem’s EBE theory supports the existence of both factors. Homosexuality isn’t just inborn in an individual, environmental factors also play a role. It is the interplay of these two factors that differences in sexual orientation are possible. References Beem, R. (2009). Genetics and homosexuality: Are people born gay? The biological basis for sexual orientation. Godandscience. org. Retrieved March 30, 2009, from http://www. godandscience. org/evolution/genetics_of_homosexuality. html Beem’s essay focused on the innateness of sexual orientation. It discussed related brain and twin studies and other scientific studies that support the innateness of sexual orientation. Bidstrup, S. (2001). Saint Aelred the queer: The surprising history of homosexuality and homophobia. Bidstrup. com. Retrieved at March 30, 2009, from http://www. bidstrup.com/phobiahistory. htm Bidstrup discussed the history of homosexuality and homophobia in this essay. He talked about the ancient tribes and civilizations that tolerated homosexuality and why it has become oppressed in these groups. Smith, E. E. ; Nolen-Hoeksema, S. ; Fredrickson, B. and Loftus, G. R. (2003). Atkinson Hilgard’s Introduction to Psychology. (14th ed. ). Australia: Thomson Wadsworth. Smith’s textbook covers general psychology lectures like emotions, learning, and motivation. It provides specific and up-to-date examples and applications of terms, theories, and definitions.

Rationale And Background Of The Study English Language Essay

Rationale And Background Of The Study English Language Essay Reading is indispensable if a person wanted to live comfortably in the modern society. It is the golden path in going to the world of enlightenment and enjoyment (Monuz, 2000). Reading is the activity characterized by the translation of symbols or letters in the words and sentences that have meaning to the individuals. The ultimate goal of reading is to be able to understand written materials to evaluate it, and to used it for ones needs (Paculanan 1999). Reading is consider as the most important subject in the curriculum, because its mastery depends on the learning of nearly to all other subjects. On account of this reality, Filipino educators have in countless instruction channeled their effort towards developing strategies and approaches in the teaching of reading (Tamundong 1998) Reading requires more than mechanical skills. As a tool for learning in the content subjects, the learners has to demonstrate growing ability to handle information effectively. In this area of complex skills are efficient location, selection organization, and retention of information and the ability to gain knowledge from the printed page depending on the learners that equipped with the necessary skills in reading. A persons reading abilities has a help to read facts about the varied and rich factual information and verbal knowledge accumulated through the ages and that of maturity, organizes these actual information and verbal knowledge, process, and interprets them through experiences to form concepts and principles which are essential in solving problems and in developing creative thinking. Paterno (1985), enumerated various factors in the disabilities or weaknesses of reading. This may range from defective hearing or maladjustments in school, to brain damage. Paterno added that some of the specific causes of reading disability, how ever, may cause by a combinations of several factors. The most common: (1) Physical Factors like defective hearing, speech, vision, inadequate nutrition, neurological dysfunction: (2) Educational factors- children have unique learning patterns and: (3) Environmental factors- not all learning takes place in a classroom and their environmental determines to a great extend, the Childs success in learning to read. To minimize if not to solve permanently the problems on reading, two objectives of education as stated in the educational act of 1982 are word mentioning. This are: (1) To provide the knowledge and develop skills, attitudes and values essential to personal development and nece4ssary for living in and contributing to a developing and changing social milieu, and (2) To provide learning experiences which increase the childs awareness of the responsiveness to the changes in and just demands of society, and to prepare for constructive and effective involvement (MEC Journal, 1991), Educational Act of 1982. Conceptual Framework Reading is one of the most needed skills to be learned in school. Seemingly, read is a word that always heard, yet difficult to discern. Reading scholars have not really come out with on universal definition of it. They only describe the characteristics of reading. Munoz (2000) describes reading as a two-way complex active process, which uses a high level of thinking skills such as literal (reading the lines), inferential (reading the lines) and critical (reading beyond the lines). However, comprehension is preceded by recognition of words, thus one can not really comprehend if he can not recognize the words correctly. Therefore in this study, the researchers want to find out the level of reading performance of the pupils in terms of word recognition. INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT Descriptive research design using observation checklist. Oral reading performance of Grade II and Grade IV pupils. Determination of the reading performance of the Grade III and Grade IV pupils in terms of word recognition. Figure 1. Research Paradigm Table shows the input, process and the output variables used in this study. The input represents the oral reading performance of the respondents. The process is the tool used for data gathering and instrumentation in order to gather pertinent data needed for analyzing, tabulation and interpretation of the problem which includes the use of observation checklist arrive at the expected outputs which is the determination of the level of reading performance of the respondents in terms of word recognition. Statement of the problem The study seeks to find out the reading performance of the grade III and grade IV pupils of Bolosan Elementary School in terms of word recognition. It specifically sought to answer the following question: 1. What is the level of reading performance in terms of recognition of the: A.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Grade III pupils B.  Ã‚  Ã‚   Grade IV pupils 2. Is there a significant difference between the level of reading performance of Grade III and Grade IV pupils in terms of word recognition. Hypothesis of the Study There is no significant difference between the level of reading performance of Grade III and Grade IV pupils in terms of word recognition. Significance of the Study Within the recent years, the demands for effective reading among pupils as an applicable instrument in development have become more prominent that always. Teachers and parents are in conformity on this scrupulous need. Conceptually, the study bring light to the student/pupils as a necessity in a more successful academic work. The result of the study are learned to benefit the following. Parents The results of the study serve as bases for the effective and efficient involvement of parents in the learning of their children especially with regards to reading. Pupils The pupils are the direct beneficiaries of the study. They will be benefited much from better school leading program, teachers guidance, parents assistance and other activities in the school, home, school administrators can offer them and also for them to know their reading abilities. Teacher The results of the study serve as an assessment and or diagnosis of reading ability of the pupil. From this the teacher would be able to designed effective reading classroom program for the pupil. School Administrators The result of the study may be used as reference guide for educational planning and policy formulation in the instruction level. Lastly, the result of this study may serve as a reference in determining the reading levels of the pupils which can serve as information in making more plans and programs by higher authorities based on the findings. It will also help in preparing reading materials based on needs and difficult5ies of the pupils. Scope and Delimitation of the Study The study is delimited to determine the level of reading performance of the respondents in terms of word recognition. The respondent of the study is composed of 41 grade III and 45 grade IV pupils. Reading comprehension is not included in the study. The study was started from July 2006. Definition of Terms Accuracy. Relates to the quality of a result and distinguished from processing, which relates to the quality of the operation by which the result is obtained. Effectiveness. Degree to which an activity or initiative is successful in achieving specified goal; Degree to which activities of a unit achieve the units mission or goal. Efficacy. Is the ability to produced an effect, usually a specifically desire defect Frustration. The pupils shows withdrawal from reading situations by crying or refusing to read. The pupils commit errors in reading such as reversal, repetition, substitution, insertion, mispronunciation and inability to interpret punctuation. Independent. The pupil is free from tension, finger pointing or lip movement. He reads with rhythm and with conversational tone and interprets punctuations correctly. Instructional. The pupils oral reading is rhythmical with conversational tone and correct interpretation. Non-reader. A pupil is unable to recognize and sound out letter sound connections for single consonants or unable to blend them. Phil IRI. Philippine Informal Reading Inventory which is a set of oral reading passages for the elementary grades in order to get the reading level og the public elementary school pupils. Reading ability. Is the awareness of print relationship to speech, text structure, phonological awareness and letter naming and writing and comprehension of reading material? It often measured by grade level. Word recognition. It refers to the ability of the pupils to recognize the words with correct pronunciation. Chapter II Review of Related Literature This chapter presents several studies concerning reading abilities and reading comprehension. However, such reviewed studies are related to the presents study in the sense that they all aimed to know about the study were the factors that affect the reading ability of grade 3 pupils. These related studies therefore, are discussed briefly in this chapter. Several program about reading as an active, meaningful, and constructive process. Before reading activities are used to build or activate relevant background knowledge, concepts, and vocabulary. Students are taught to monitor their reading to ensure that what they are reading makes sense. They are taught strategies for correcting word recognition errors that detract from meaning, and they are given opportunities for reacting and responding to selection they have read. The texts they are asked to read for enjoyment and for information. Other activities are developed within a framework of reading for meaning. Because reading for meaning is the constants point of reference and because students in these programs need substantial help in building word identification skills, the amount of time spent in discussing selection and in teacher questioning about the selection is kept to a minimum. All of the successful programs offer students special instruction on a daily basis for period ranging from 20 to 45 minutes. Daily contact with students ensures that progress is the steady and allows teachers to become very familiar with students and their strength and needs. Frequent contacts also allows teacher to reinforce and extend strategic behaviors that students are acquiring. An instructional period of at least 20 to 30 minutes allows time for instruction and practice along a number of dimension that provide students with the strategies they need to become effective readers. The prevailing philosophy in most of the other early interventions programs appears to be that first grade is the point where special help should be offered to prevent reading failure; that many, if not most, students will, by the end of first grade, be able to make sufficient progress in reading to function in a regular classroom setting without special help; but that some students will continue to need support through second grade. Though some of the programs began as just first grade programs, most now continue through second grade for students who need longer periods of special help. These programs use methods and materials that help students to recognize words accurately and rapidly, and to group words into meaningful phrases the three dimensions of fluency. The courage to reread a book several times once it has been introduced. There is evidence that the repeated reading of a texts leads to improved word identification skills and comprehension ( Adams, 1995). As children move through these programs, they become familiar with an increasing number of texts. They are encouraged to reread these texts to gain additional practice, to extend their fluency, and to build confidence in their growing reading competency. To avoid failure or frustration for students, each new book is introduced with as much as a teacher judges is needed. For example, a pictures walk is often used as a before reading activity. Students are asked to speculate about the texts contents, and unusual or difficult vocabulary is pointed out by the teacher and discussed. Thus, the student begins rea ding the book with prior knowledge and clear expectations about the selections contents. Another frequently used technique is shared reading, in which the texts is read first by the teacher as students follow along in the texts. Then as a group, students progress to reading the texts with the help as needed. Teacher support is gradually withdrawn, and students assume more responsibility. Finally, individual children practice reading the text. Instruction often moves from a shared reading model to guided reading in which students assume responsibility for the first reading of a selection after the teacher helps prepare them and supports them during their reading. In all the successful intervention programs there is a clear progression from much teacher support in the initial phases of the program to increase students independence. The types of texts most frequently used in early intervention program are predictable texts. The earliest books used in the programs tend to have a close match between pictures and texts, have recurring language patterns, and include repetition of language elements, which make them easy for students to read. Even children with very restricted word recognition capabilities quickly begin to think of themselves as readers because they are successful with these profitable texts. As students progress in the program, the degree of predictability decreases to ensure that the students attend to the printed texts in order to build a multifaceted word recognition strategy that will make them increasingly independent readers. In the initial phases of instruction, selections also tend to be short so that students can finish a text within an instructional period. As their reading capabilities grow, texts become longer and more challenging. While one of the successful program use traditional, narrow measures of readability, all sequence of the instructional materials, based on many factors including text predictability (reflected in factors such as recurring language patterns, close picture to text match, repetition of words), length of text, challenge of vocabulary, complexity of language, sophistication of concept so that students are challenged to apply the strategies and skills they are learning. Reading new text, and rereading familiar text insure that student in this programs engage in meaningful, connected reading. This program also includes activities that help students focus on and become familiar wit printed words. For example, the Winston-Salem Project uses a procedure called Making Words (Baker L. Brown A.L,1999). Students are presented with the letters that form a word from a selection they read. Words are selected because of their interest and because they contain words identification elements that will be useful for the students It has been recognized that asking students to write words (not copy) is a very effective approach in developing word recognition and reading skill (Adams, 1999;Clay, 1996). For example in the early intervention in reading program, the students select a student to write sentences. The teacher then encourages each students to think about the styling of each word and to write as much of the word as they can. Teacher support his offer only as needed in order to insure that the students write the word accurately. For example, for the children who are having difficulty with phonemic awareness, the teacher draws a box for each sound in the word. The children are guided to think about the number of sound in a word and the letters that represent those sound. For example, the teacher would draw 3 boxes for the word teach, grouping the EA and CH in separate boxes since that word EA and CH represents single sound. The following are regular pattern to he scheduled for better reading. Reading familiar texts. Reading or rereading a new book Working with words Writing words or sentences The researchers therefore want to find out what are the common factors affecting the reading performance of a child, thus, the study. Chapter III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY This chapter presents the procedure utilized in the collection of data, the method employed in the presentation and interpretation to answer the problems presented in Chapter I. Research Design This study utilized the descriptive method of research. Descriptive because it seeks to investigate prevailing conditions about the level of reading performance of the respondents in terms of word recognition. (Adanza, 2002). Sources of Data Table 1 Frequency and Percentage Distribution of the Respondents in Terms of Grade Level and Section Grade Section Frequency Percentage Grade III-B 41 47.67% Grade IV-B 45 52.33% Table 1 presents the respondents of the study which is composed of 41 grade III pupils belonging to section B and 45 pupils in Grade IV also in section B. This so because Grade III and IV are the middle grades in elementary and both section B for it is on the average position thus, they are better representatives for the study. Instrumentation and Data Collection The researcher adopted the Phil IRI oral reading test of the Bureau of Elementary Education SY 2006-2007. After asking permission from the principal, the researchers administered testing with the help of the teachers. The researchers adopted the Phil IRI oral reading test formula for finding the level of reading performance in terms of word recognition. Tools for Data Analysis The researchers used frequency and percentage counts for the presentation of data and the chi-square to test the hypothesis of the study. The formula for finding the level of reading performance in terms of word recognition which is adopted from the Phil IRI oral reading test is: Percent of miscue= No. of major miscue x 100 No. of words WR = 100% percent of miscue Where: No. of major miscue number of words that are not recognized or pronounced right. WR Level of word recognition For the percentage distribution, the formula used is: P = f/N x 100 Where: P Percentage f frequency N total number of cases or respondents For sub problem number 2, the researchers used the chi-square-goodness-of-fit test, that is: X2 = à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ(O-E)2 E Where: X2 = Chi-Square O = Observed Frequency E = Expected Frequency Chapter IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS This chapter presents and discusses the results of the study to answer the problems in chapter I Table 2 Frequency and Percentage Distribution of the Grade III pupils in Terms of Level of Word Recognition Level Frequency Percentage Independent 0 0% Instructional 17 41.46% Frustration 19 46.34% Nonreader 5 12.2% Total 41 100% The table shows that nobody is considered as independent reader. There are 17 (41.46%) who are under instructional, 19 (46.34%) under frustration and 5 (12.2%) under none-reader. Table 3 Frequency and Percentage Distribution of the Grade IV pupils in Terms of Level of Word Recognition Level Frequency Percentage Independent 0 0% Instructional 8 17.78% Frustration 35 77.78% Nonreader 2 4.44% Total 45 100% It is visible in the table that nobody also from the grade IV pupils is under independent category. Also showed that 8 (17.78%) are under instructional, 35 (77.78%) are lined at frustration category and 2 (4.44%) under none-reader type. Table 4 Frequency Distribution of the Respondents according to the Level of Reading Performance in Terms of Word Recognition With their corresponding Grade Levels Level Grade level Independent and Instructional Frustration and Non-reader Total Grade III 17 24 41 Grade IV 8 37 45 Total 25 61 86 Table 4 shows variation of the level of word recognition among the respondents. Table 5 Computation of the ChiSquare O E O-E (O-E)2 (O-E)2/E 17 11.92 5.08 25.81 2.1653 8 13.08 -5.08 25.81 1.9732 24 29.08 5.08 25.81 0.8876 37 31.92 -5.08 25.81 0.8086 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ (O-E)2/E 5.8347 Where: at df = 1, the level of O Observed frequency significance at „ƒ = 0.05 E Expected frequency is 3.841 (Walpole, 1982) df = 1 „ƒ = 0.05 From the table 4, at 1 degree of freedom, the tabular value of chi-square at „ƒ = 0.05 is 3.841. Since, the tabular value is lesser than the computed value which is 5.8347, the hypothesis is rejected. Thus, there is a significant difference between the level of reading performance of Grade III and Grade IV pupils in terms of word recognition Chapter V SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION This chapter presents the summary, conclusion and the recommendations of the researchers based on the study. Summary The study was pursued to find out the level of reading performance of the grade III and grade IV pupils of Bolosan Elementary School in terms of word recognition. It sought to determine also whether there is significant difference between the two grade levels in terms or reading performance with regards to word recognition. The study used the descriptive method using checklist for the actual reading performance. This research was conducted from June to December 2006. Findings The researchers found out that 17 or 41.46% grade III pupils are under instructional or are rhythmical reader with conversational tone and correct interpretation. There are also 19 or 46.34% who shows withdrawal from reading situations by crying or refusing to read and committing errors. On the other hand, 8 or 17.78% of the grade IV are under instructional type, 35 or 77.78% are considered under frustration type while 2 or 4.44% are non-readers and lastly, nobody also is under independent type of reader. The bottom line is, it was found out that there is significant difference between the grade III and grade IV pupils in terms of level of reading performance with regards to word recognition. Conclusion Based from the analyzed data presented, the researchers concluded that grade III and grade IV pupils level of reading performance in terms of word recognition is mostly on the bracket of frustration and instructional type of readers, that is they show withdrawal from reading situations by crying or refusing to read and committing errors in reading such as reversal, repetition, substitution, insertion, mispronunciation and inability to interpret punctuation but others are rhythmical with conversational tone and correct interpretation. Recommendation From the findings of the study, the researchers recommend the following: Having been revealed that the level of reading performance of the grade III and grade IV pupils in terms of word recognition falls under the frustration and instructional type, the researchers recommend teachers to use more intensified instruction for the betterment of the reading performance of the pupils. The researchers also wish that future researchers will focus also on reading performances of the pupils in other aspects such as comprehension, speed and others.

Effects of Imperialism on Society Essay -- Politics, Power, Authority,

As the 21st century begins, the economic infrastructure of the Globe continues to feel the lasting affects of Imperialism in the 20th century and beyond. During the previous century there were two key characters, Germany and the United States, who both played a vital role in producing the economic setting we have today. The use of Imperialist policies in Germany, specifically leading up to and during the Nazi regime, and the United states, specifically in the Post-WWII era, would dictate much of how our present economic system would function. In previous centuries, these flawed policies of imperialism offered a tactless criterion which industrializing nations were to use if at all interested in accumulating wealth or having access to the Global market. These policies called for the domination and exploitation of other nations thereby contributing to the formation of the list of nations we refer to today as the â€Å"the Third World†. Although colonialism and most forms of imp erialism have formally been eradicated since the 1950s, the affects can clearly be seen lingering within International markets and the Global structure. A thorough understanding of imperialism and its effects on todays societies must be preceded by a firm understanding of its definition and familiarity with its history. As with almost any -ism it is very difficult to clearly define exactly what imperialism is, but the Merriam-Webster Dictionary broadly defines it as being: the extension or imposition of power, authority, or influence. It is difficult to pinpoint exactly when imperialism was first implemented, but again this is simply because of the diversity of definitions among opposing groups. Despite its shiftiness, there is a generally understood answer to ... ... the world and as a result have left billions below the poverty line. The unfortunate thing is that the imperialist ideology does less for the working class and more for the capitalist class which is considered to be the â€Å"governor of the imperial engine†. In reality it simply does not make sense for the nation but makes total sense for the financial interest of the minority (Magdoff 34). Imperialist policy has lingered in our society with nation being subjugate to other nations through the economy and politics lean up. But emancipation is possible through questions and democracy, as Alexis de Tocqueville once said â€Å" vigilance is the price of liberty, independent and vigorous criticism is the only safeguard of our liberties† (Winslow 460). It is said that to be a super power, one must remain imperialistic but for the sake of we should try to find other alternatives.

Essay on Faith in Hawthornes Young Goodman Brown -- Young Goodman Bro

Faith in Young Goodman Brown  Ã‚        Ã‚   For those who have not studied the Puritans or their beliefs, Nathaniel Hawthorne's "Young Goodman Brown" is not much more than a story of lost (or maybe just confused) faith. Hawthone, a man of puritan descent, had some oppositions to the ideals that Puritans followed. Some of these ideals are discussed in his "Young Goodman Brown".   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The basic impression that most people have of Puritans "describes them as dour, irascible, self-righteous, hypocritical people who hated sex, joy, and life. They dressed in black, they hated nature, they burned witches, and they repressed all natural desires,". This is the view that influences most people when Puritans appear in literature. We see the stereotypical hatred of the forest (the Devil's playground), the fear of Indians (the Devil's spawn) and the extreme fear of the Devil himself run rampant in "Young Goodman Brown". Hawthorne's description of the forest is very disheartening. "He had taken a dreary road, darkened by all the gloomiest trees of the forest..." (p 375) This is a rather depressing and f... ... not be so blindly relied upon. However, after a bit more delving, that the story speaks not only of faith and it's hazards, but of the flaws in the puritan system.    1.) Roberts, Trish. Background to the American Puritans.  Ã‚  http://www.missouri.edu/~engpat/purs.html. (accessed 2-1-02) 2.) Hawthorne, Nathaniel. "Young Goodman Brown". printed in: A Handbook of Critical  Approaches to Literature: Fourth Edition. Editors Wilfred L. Guerin, Earle Labor, Lee Morgan, Jeanne C. Reesman, John R. Willingham. Oxford University Press, Oxford. 1999.

Pschological assessment Essay

Section A Write an essay on the process you would follow in developing a psychological assessment measure. Discuss the steps that you would take in this process, including how you would choose items for your test, how you would evaluate the reliability and validity of your test, and the issue of establishing norms. Discuss the theory comprehensively and illustrate your understanding with an example or examples. Introduction The process of developing a psychological test is a complex and lengthy one. ( Foxcroft & Roodt, 2001) but aspects related to the planning of a psychological test are not always sufficiently emphasised and sometimes not mentioned at all ( Kaplan & Saccuzzo, 1997). When the test is to be used in a multicultural context, attention needs to be paid to the cultural relevance (and potential bias) of the test right from the planning and design phase instead of only being sensitive to cultural aspects from the item writing phase onwards. Also given that we do not have a long history of developing culturally appropriate tests applicable to diverse groups in South Africa, test developers need to grapple with basic issues such as what methods of test administration might be appropriate or inappropriate for certain cultural groups and what language to develop the test in, for example. More time needs to be spent in the planning phase exploring and critically considering test design issues. Planning phase The first and most important step in developing psychological measures is the planning phase. Planning involves writing out the skeleton of what one aims to achieve. Careful though needs to go into deciding on the aim of the measure, defining the content of the measure and key elements of the test plan. a test plan consists of the following aspects: (a) specifying the purpose and rationale for the test as well as the intended target population, (b) defining the construct (content domain) and creating a set of test specifications to guide item writing, (c) choosing the test format, (d) choosing the item format, and (e) specifying the administration and scoring methods (Robertson, 1990). Specifying the aim of the measure The first step is to state the aim of the measure, the construct I will use and how the outcome will be used. If I am conducting this study in South Africa I will also need to mention that the measure will be used in a multicultural society. I would need to elaborate on what I mean by multicultural by highlighting the context. I would state the age of the test takers and their educational status. The information concluded above is important because it may have an impact on the test specifications and design. I would need to state whether the test would be paper-based or computer-based. When that decision is made I would need to consider whether the test-takers are familiar with such tests. The test takers may underperform on the evaluation because they are not proficient in the instrument of measure. This may impact the validity of the study to be conducted. I would also need to ascertain whether the test will be administered individually or in a group setting. Because psychological constructs are brewed in western societies, the emphasis is on individualism. When working in a multicultural society, however, it is important to consider the norms of the society I would be working in. In some cultures, for example, the group identity is valued over the individual identity. This could have an effect on the content of the measure. Defining the content of the measure Here I need to figure out what I want to measure and why. This will show me what to focus on during the other steps. A working definition of the construct is needed. This includes identifying exactly what I aim to get out of this research study. To do this I need to embark on a comprehensive literature review. I will see how my topic has been investigated in the past and spot the gaps. I can now make the decision on whether I am conducting a new study or adapting an existing study into the South African context. Later I will need to make the same decision on the instrument I will use for data gathering. Since I would be working in South Africa, I need to decide on whether separate norms should be developed for test takers from advantaged and disadvantaged schooling backgrounds and/or for urban and rural areas. I would assemble a team of content, language and cultural experts to scrutinise the content being developed. Nell (1994) states that  language is a critical moderator variable of test performance. If the test taker is not proficient in that language, it is difficult to ascertain whether poor performance is due to language or communication difficulty or that the test-taker has a low level of the construct being measured. I would produce the test in a bilingual format and specify the source language. Work would need to be done to ensure that the construct is meaningful for each group. Developing the test plan (specifications) Once the construct to be assessed has been defined and operationalised, a decision needs to be reached regarding what approach will be employed to guide the development of the test content and specifications. Decisions will be made regarding the format to be used (open-ended items, forced-choice items etc.), how they will be scored (objective or subjective tests), and whether time limits will be imposed. The language and cultural experts are once again needed during this step. Sometimes psychological constructs, conceptualised in western society, do not have a known equivalent in African discourse. For such constructs the translated version would need to explain the construct in a way that is closest to the English meaning. This will require more time for the African language test taker. The test specification should eliminate the possibility of construct bias. The format therefore needs to be standardised for a variety of cultural groups or it should at least include items that will be considered easy, moderate and difficult by all groups. Although these steps follow after each other, I will need to go backwards and forwards to ensure content and construct validity. Item writing The second step is item writing. Once the test specifications have been finalised, the team of experts writes or develops the items. The trend in South Africa has been to simply adapt an already made test to accommodate South African test takers. This is not necessarily the easier option. Firstly, concepts are not always understood in the same way in different societies. For example, the term depression is sometimes taken to mean with  very sad in some societies. It is therefore important to ensure construct validity even for an English test given to English mother tongue speakers of a different society to that of the tests’ origin. If the assessment measure will be administered to children, face validity will be ensured through the use of big writing, use of colour and drawings. The length of the items should also be considered. With every step of items writing reliability is ensured. Reviewing the items An item bank is then developed and items reviewed in terms of whether they meet the content specification and whether they are well written. Items which do not meet the specifications are removed from the bank before it can be used to generate criteria-referenced tests. The team of experts should focus on both content validity and indicate whether the items are from stereotyping and potential bias. The experts will then return the item list with recommendations. They will need to be re-written or revised. Assembling and pre-testing the experimental version of the measure Items need to be arranged in a logical way. Since we are dealing with a multicultural society, we need to ensure that the items are balanced and on appropriate pages. The length of the items in each category needs to be finalised. For long problems based items, time adjustments need to be made. A decision would have been made with regards to whether the test is paper-based or computer-based. The appropriate apparatus needs to be made available. The  Pre-testing the experimental version of the measure The test items have to be administered to a large group of examinees. This sample should be representative of the population for which the eventual test is intended. This will be the norm group. Items analysis phase During this phase items are checked for relevance. Again we see if each item is reliable and valid to the study. The characteristics of the items can be evaluated using the classical test theory or the item response theory. At the item level, the CTT model is relatively simple. CTT does not invoke a complex theoretical model to relate an examinee’s ability to success on a particular item. Instead, CTT collectively considers a pool of examinees and empirically examines their success rate on an item (assuming it is dichotomously scored). This success rate of a particular pool of examinees on an item, well known as the p value of the item, is used as the index for the item difficulty (actually, it is an inverse indicator of item difficulty, with higher value indicating an easier item). The ability of an item to discriminate between higher ability examinees and lower ability examinees is known as item discrimination, which is often expressed statistically as the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient between the scores on the item (e.g., 0 and 1 on an item scored right-wrong) and the scores on the total test. When an item is dichotomously scored, this estimate is often computed as a point-biserial correlation coefficient. IRT, on the other hand, is more theory grounded and models the probabilistic distribution of examinees’ success at the item level. As its name indicates, IRT primarily focuses on the item-level information in contrast to the CTT’s primary focus on test-level information. The IRT framework encompasses a group of models, and the applicability of each model in a particular situation depends on the nature of the test items and the viability of different theoretical assumptions about the test items. Revising and standardizing the final version of the measure Once the qualitative and quantitative information has been gathered, the test is administered to the large sample for standardization. All the items that were found to be unclear are simplified. Vocabulary and grammar is corrected. Split-half reliability is assessed. The translated version is checked through back translation (into the source language). The items are finalised for the test. The final database is used to check on reliability  and validity. The administration and scoring instruction may need to be modified. Then the final version is administered. Technical evaluation and establishing norms The items can be analysed using the item response theory. The characteristics of each item may be represented graphically be means of a graph which relates an individuals’ ability score with their probability of passing the items. Items with large variances are selected. The scores obtained by the norm group in the final test form are referred to as the norms of the test. To compare an individual’s score with the norms, their raw score will be converted to the same kind of derived score as that in which the test norms are reported (e.g. percentile ranks, McCall’s T scores etc). Publishing and ongoing refinements A test manual is compiled before a measure published. The manual should make information on the psychometric properties of the test easily understandable. It will be updated from time to time as more information becomes available. Section B List the steps that should be followed in the adaption of an assessment measure for cross-cultural application and briefly explain what each step means. 1. Reasons for adapting measures  Cross-cultural assessment has become a sensitive issue due to specific concerns regarding the use of standardized tests across cultures. By adapting an instrument, the researcher is able to compare the already-existing data with newly acquired data, thus allowing for cross-cultural studies both on the national and international level. Adaptations also can conserve time and expenses (Hambleton, 1993). Test adaptation can lead to increased fairness in assessment by allowing individuals to be assessed in the language of their choice (Hambleton & Kanjee, 1995). 2. Important considerations when adapting measures The test can be compromised if there are problems between the test takers and the administrator. The administrator should therefore familiar with the culture of the test-taker. They cannot take it for granted that the test taker will be exposed to the format of the test. This could lead to the score representing a lack of skill with regards to the format of the test instead of measuring the construct being assessed. Some languages, like isiZulu, require more time to be spent reading therefore would require more time to complete. 3. Designs for adapting measures Before selecting an assessment instrument for use in counseling or research, counselors and researchers are trained to verify that the test is appropriate for use with their population. This includes investigation of validity, reliability, and appropriate norm groups to which the population is to be compared. Validity and reliability take on additional dimensions in cross-cultural testing as does the question of the appropriate norm group. The instrument must be validly adapted, the test items must have conceptual and linguistic equivalence, and the test and the test items must be bias free (Fouad, 1993; Geisinger, 1994). Two basic methods for test adaptation have been identified: forward translation and back-translation. In forward translation, the original test in the source language is translated into the target language and then bilinguals are asked to compare the original version with the adapted version (Hambleton, 1993; 1994). In back-translation, the test is translated into the target language and then it is re-translated back to the source language. This process can be repeated several times. Once the process is complete, the final back-translated version is compared to the original version (Hambleton, 1994). Each of these adaptation processes has their strengths and limitations. 4. Bias analysis and differential item functioning Another issue that must be considered in cross-cultural assessment is test bias. The test user must ascertain that the test and the test items do not systematically discriminate against one cultural group or another. Test bias  may occur when the contents of the test are more familiar to one group than to another or when the tests have differential predictive validity across groups (Fouad, 1994). Culture plays a significant role in cross-cultural assessment. Whenever tests developed in one culture are used with another culture there is the potential for misinterpretation and stagnation unless cultural issues are considered. Issues of test adaptation, test equivalence and test bias must be considered in order to fully utilize the benefit of cross-cultural assessment. 5. Steps for maximizing success in test adaption Hembleton (2004) summarised nine key steps that should be addressed when adapting or translating assessment instruments. 6. Challenges related to test adaption in south Africa A disadvantage of adaptation includes the risk of imposing conclusions based on concepts that exist in one culture but may not exist in the other. There are no guarantees that the concept in the source culture exists in the target culture (Lonner & Berry, 1986). Another disadvantage of adapting existing tests for use in another culture is that if certain constructs measured in the original version are not found in the target population, or if the construct is manifested in a different manner, the resulting scores can prove to be misleading (Hambleton, 1994). Despite the difficulties associated with using adapted instruments, this practice is important because it allows for greater generalizability and allows for investigation of differences among a growing diverse population. Once the test has been adapted, test equivalence must be determined. Reference Foxcroft, C.D. & Roodt, G. (2009). An introduction to psychological assessment in South Africa. Johannesburg: Oxford University Press Hambleton, R. K. (2001). The next generation of the ITC Test Translation and Adaptation Guidelines. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 17, 164-172. Hambleton, R. K. (2004). Issues, designs, and technical guidelines for adapting tests into multiple languages and cultures. In R. K. Hambleton, P. F. Merenda, & C. D. Spielberger (Eds.), Adapting educational and psychological tests for cross-cultural assessment (pp. 3-38). Mahwah,NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Van Ede, D.M. (1996). How to adapt a measuring instrument for use with various cultural groups: a practical step-by-step introduction. South African Journal of Higher Education, 10, 153-160.

Evolution of Hrm

History and Evolution of HRM Personnel Management Personnel departments were once called Health and Happiness departments. The people assigned to deal with personnel issues were often individuals, who were not able to do other jobs efficiently. Personnel Management’s as a corporate field developed in the early 1900s. It was seen as activity, necessary, but unimportant, part of the organization. Over the years personnel management came to focus on efficient procedures and rules for administering large numbers of employees in various firms.Its aim was to manage difficulties, introduce fair systems and reduce costs. It also tended to focus on groups rather than individuals and, incidentally, reinforced labour-management divisions. The History of Human Resource Management The field of HRM as it currently exists has got through lot of transition. Following are the phases in the transition of HRM:- (a) The Individual Revolution: During this phase machines were introduced into variou s organizations and technology made rapid progress.Due to fragmentation and specialization of work, many workers lost their jobs and many workers felt their work to be dull, boring and monotonous. Workers were treated like tools, and moreover employees were keen to increase the production targets rather than satisfy workers’ demands. (b) Scientific Management: With the introduction of Scientific Management given by F. W. Taylor, efficiency in organizations was increased . Work was rearranged according to systematic analysis into smallest mechanical elements which was mot effective combination.Taylor emphasized on the fact that the individuals selected to perform the task should be perfectly matched, physically as well as mentally. Proper training should be given to the employees so that they can do their job more efficiently. (c) Trade Unionism: As the employees become more exploitive, the workers working in the organizations joined hands to fight against injustice done to th em in the shape of Trade Unions tried to improve the problems faced by the workers through collective bargaining.They helped in resolving the grievances of the workers relating to working conditions, pay and benefits, disciplinary actions, etc. (d) Human Relations Movement: The famous Hawthorne experiments conducted by Elton Mayo during 1930s and 1940s demonstrated that employee productivity was affected not only by the way job was designed, and the monetary aspects, but by certain social and psychological factors as well. The human relations movement led to various behavioral science techniques in industry for the very first time.This movement included support for training programs, support and concern for workers, counseling programs for workers, etc. (e) Human Resource Approach: However, but during early 60s the â€Å"pet milk theory†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. that happy workers are more productive workers as happy cow gives more milk †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Of human relations was la rgely rejected. In human resource approach it was recognized that workers are unique in their own way – having individual needs. It was recognized that each employee is a unique and highly complex individual with different wants, needs and values.Slowly but steadily, the trend moved towards treating employees as resources or assets. Evolution of the Concept of HRM The various stages or phases in the transition or evolution of Personnel Management into Human Resource Management are shown below: (a)The Commodity Concept:Labor was regarded as a commodity to a tool to be bought or sold (b) The Factor of Production Concept: labor is like any other factor of production, viz. money, materials, land etc. (c) The Goodwill Concept: Welfare measures like safety, first aid, lunch room, rest room will have a positive impact on workers’ productivity. d) The Paternalistic Concept: Management must assume a fatherly or protective attitude towards employee. It means satisfying the vario us needs of employees as parents meet the requirements of their child. (e) The Humanitarian Concept: To improve productivity, physical, social and psychological needs of workers must be fulfilled and met. (f) The Human Resource Concept: Employees are the most valuable assets in the organization. (g) The Emerging Concept: Employees should be accepted as partners of the organization.They should belong to the organization as they are running their own organization. Scope of HRM The main aim of HRM is Competitive advantage through people. It involves the following points:- (a) Change in Thinking Process: Achieving competitive success through people involves fundamentally changing the thinking of the concerns, that how they think about the workforce consisting of people an the management-employment relationship. (b) Co-operation with Employees: It means achieving success by working with people, not by replacing them or limiting the scope of their activities. c) Strategic Viewpoint: It in volves seeing the workforce as a source of strategic advantage, not just a cost to be minimized. Distinction – Personnel Management/HRM/HRD The sole purpose of personnel management was to attain advantage and best results for the organization. The individual’s interests, desires and aspirations were submerged into the organization objectives and goals. Where as, HRM projects the development of individual in accordance with his interests, desires & aspirations. So that the individuals would be motivated to make their best contribution towards the accomplishment of goals.While personnel function was designed to respond to the organization objectives like profit of maximization, HRM visualized human elements of enterprise as important resources. The term human resources at the macro level spell the total sum of all the components (like skill & creative ability) possessed by all the people, where as the term personnel even at the macro level is limited to only employees of all organization. One must not be under impression that HRM has replaced traditional personnel management rather we can say that HRM has absorbed the personnel function in its refined form.HRD is an integral part of Human Resource Management. Due to the amalgation of Personnel function in its refined way with HRM, it became necessary for every organization to develop skills, talents, potentialities, capabilities and attitude of company work to meet the emerging challenges. Hence HRD policies have been adopted. HRD strategies are supposed to bring forth necessary changes in skills capabilities and attitudes of people who are required to cope with the emerging changes. Thus HRD has become an integral part of Human Resource Management.Personnel Management Human Resource Management Personnel Management | Human Resource Management| | | Labor is treated as a tool which is replaceable| Treats people as a resource or as an asset to be issued for the benefit of an organization | Interests o f organization are upper most | A distinct philosophy aiming at mutuality of interests| A not so important function meant only to hire employees and maintain their records | Integrated into overall straight management | Precedes human resources management | Latest in the evolution of subject|